Surprising Reasons You're in Pain

Surprising Reasons You're in Pain



Often, the blame for our pain rests on the simple choices we make every day. The Cleveland Clinic Florida's David Westerdahl, MD, shares a few examples – starting with flip-flops and foam-soled sandals. They provide poor arch support, leading to pain in the feet, ankles, and knees.

Solution: Wear shoes with arch support. When you know you'll be walking a lot, opt for sneakers.

How Much Do You Know About This 'Superbug'?

How Much Do You Know About This 'Superbug'?




This tiny cluster of bacteria is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), seen under a microscope. This strain of the common "staph" bacteria causes infections in different parts of the body - including the skin, lungs, and other areas. MRSA is sometimes called a "superbug" because it is resistant to many antibiotics. Though most MRSA infections aren't serious, some can be life-threatening.

Boils

Boils



A boil, also referred to as a skin abscess, is a localized infection deep in the skin. A boil generally starts as a reddened, tender area. Over time, the area becomes firm and hard. Eventually, the center of the abscess softens and becomes filled with infection-fighting white blood cells that the body sends via the bloodstream to eradicate the infection. This collection of white blood cells, bacteria, and proteins is known as pus. Finally, the pus "forms a head," which can be surgically opened or spontaneously drain out through the surface of the skin.

Precancerous Skin Lesions and Skin Cancer

Precancerous Skin Lesions and Skin Cancer




Like many cancers, skin cancers—including melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma—start as precancerous lesions. These precancerous lesions are changes in skin that are not cancer but could become cancer over time. An estimated 40% to 50% of fair-skinned people who live to be 65 will develop at least one skin cancer. Learn to spot the early warning signs. Skin cancer can be cured if it's found and treated early.

Barbecue & Picnic Tips from A-Z

Barbecue & Picnic Tips from A-Z

Barbecue and Food Safety

Cooking outdoors was once only a summer activity shared with family and friends. Now more than half of Americans say they are cooking outdoors year round. So whether the snow is blowing or the sun is shining brightly, it's important to follow food safety guidelines to prevent harmful bacteria from multiplying and causing foodborne illness. Use these simple guidelines for grilling food safely.

* From the Store: Home First
* Thaw Safely
* Marinating Food
* Transporting Food
* Keep Cold Food Cold
* Keep Everything Clean
* Precooking Food
* Cook Food Thoroughly
* Reheating Food
* Keep Hot Food Hot
* Serving the Food
* Leftovers
* Safe Smoking
* Pit Roasting
* Does Grilling Pose a Cancer Risk?

From the Store: Home First

When shopping, buy cold food like meat and poultry last, right before checkout. Separate raw meat and poultry from other food in your shopping cart. To guard against cross-contamination — which can happen when raw meat or poultry juices drip on other food — put packages of raw meat and poultry into plastic bags.

Plan to drive directly home from the grocery store. You may want to take a cooler with ice for perishables. Always refrigerate perishable food within 2 hours. Refrigerate within 1 hour when the temperature is above 90°F.

At home, place meat and poultry in the refrigerator immediately. Freeze poultry and ground meat that won't be used in 1 or 2 days; freeze other meat within 4 to 5 days.

Thaw Safely

Completely thaw meat and poultry before grilling so it cooks more evenly. Use the refrigerator for slow, safe thawing or thaw sealed packages in cold water. You can microwave defrost if the food will be placed immediately on the grill.

Marinating

A marinade is a savory, acidic sauce in which a food is soaked to enrich its flavor or to tenderize it. Marinate food in the refrigerator, not on the counter. Poultry and cubed meat or stew meat can be marinated up to 2 days. Beef, veal, pork, and lamb roasts, chops, and steaks may be marinated up to 5 days. If some of the marinade is to be used as a sauce on the cooked food, reserve a portion of the marinade before putting raw meat and poultry in it. However, if the marinade used on raw meat or poultry is to be reused, make sure to let it come to a boil first to destroy any harmful bacteria.

Transporting

When carrying food to another location, keep it cold to minimize bacterial growth. Use an insulated cooler with sufficient ice or ice packs to keep the food at 40°F or below. Pack food right from the refrigerator into the cooler immediately before leaving home.

Keep Cold Food Cold

Keep meat and poultry refrigerated until ready to use. Only take out the meat and poultry that will immediately be placed on the grill.

When using a cooler, keep it out of the direct sun by placing it in the shade or shelter. Avoid opening the lid too often, which lets cold air out and warm air in. Pack beverages in one cooler and perishables in a separate cooler.

Keep Everything Clean

Be sure there are plenty of clean utensils and platters. To prevent foodborne illness, don't use the same platter and utensils for raw and cooked meat and poultry. Harmful bacteria present in raw meat and poultry and their juices can contaminate safely cooked food.
If you're eating away from home, find out if there's a source of clean water. If not, bring water for preparation and cleaning. Or pack clean cloths, and wet towelettes for cleaning surfaces and hands.

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Most Fattening Foods of Summer

Most Fattening Foods of Summer


Ahhh, the lazy days of summer: backyard barbecues, cocktails at the pool, baseball games, and lots of fried chicken, ribs, potato salad, ice cream, hot dogs, and beer. Summertime living may be easy, but if you're not careful, summer's fattening foods can really pack on the pounds. While most people are more active during the summer, it may not be enough to burn off all the extra calories from fattening summer treats.

Sun-Damaged Skin

Sun-Damaged Skin


Basking in the warm glow of the sun can make us feel good, and in the short term, makes us look good. But the cumulative effects of sun exposure put us at higher risk of cellular damage, early wrinkling, age spots, actinic keratoses, and skin cancer -- including melanoma, the most serious type. Can you spot the effects of excessive sun exposure?

Adult Skin Problems

Adult Skin Problems




Is your skin itching, breaking out, covered in a rash, or playing host to strange spots? Skin inflammation, changes in texture or color, and spots may be the result of infection, a chronic skin condition, or contact with an allergen or irritant. You can learn to recognize common adult skin problems. Yet, while many are minor, they may signal something more serious, so always consult a doctor for proper diagnosis.

Benzodiazepines: Valium, Xanax

Benzodiazepines: Valium, Xanax



Valium and Xanax are examples of benzodiazepines, another type of depressant. They may be prescribed to treat anxiety, acute stress reactions, panic attacks, convulsions, and sleep disorders (typically for short-term use). Like other depressants, they have reasonable uses but may be abused. Withdrawal from benzodiazepines "can be problematic" but is rarely life-threatening, notes the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).

Commonly Abused Prescription and OTC Drugs

Commonly Abused Prescription and OTC Drugs




Prescribed to ease anxiety or promote sleep, depressants slow the brain's function. Barbiturates are a type of depressant. Phenobarbital is a barbiturate; others are Mebaral, Seconal, and Nembutal. Though helpful when used as prescribed, barbiturates can be addictive. If taken with certain drugs, including alcohol, the heart and breathing can slow, which can lead to death. Slang for barbituates includes "barbs," "reds," red birds," "phennies," "tooies," "yellows," and "yellow jackets."

Commonly Abused Prescription and OTC Drugs

Commonly Abused Prescription and OTC Drugs


Drug abuse isn't just about illicit drugs like marijuana or cocaine. Legal medicines with legitimate uses can be abused -- meaning they're taken by someone other than the patient or in a manner or dose other than what's recommended. Here you'll find pictures of commonly abused prescription drugs (depressants, pain relievers, and stimulants) and some nonprescription (over-the-counter) drugs. Because drugs come in many forms, not all pills and tablets are shown; drug pictures are not to scale.

Cholesterol Drugs

Cholesterol Drugs



High cholesterol affects many people throughout the world. High cholesterol levels can greatly increase the risk of heart disease, including potentially fatal heart attacks. Exercise, weight loss, and a diet low in cholesterol and saturated fats can help lower cholesterol levels. However, when these measures fail, cholesterol-lowering medications are usually needed. In this slideshow we'll discuss cholesterol basics, and review the classes of drugs prescribed to lower cholesterol.

A Visual Guide to Erectile Dysfunction

A Visual Guide to Erectile Dysfunction



Erectile dysfunction (ED) occurs when a man has repeated problems sustaining an erection. Without treatment, ED can make sexual intercourse difficult. The condition, sometimes called impotence, affects an estimated 15 million to 30 million men in the U.S. While the topic was once taboo, awareness has skyrocketed with recent advances in treatment for ED.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis


Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by low bone mass and loss of bone tissue that may lead to weak and fragile bones. If you have osteoporosis, you have an increased risk for fractured bones (broken bones).

Ringworm

Ringworm



Ringworm is a common skin disorder otherwise known as tinea. While there are multiple forms of ringworm, the most common affect the skin on the body (tinea corporis), the scalp (tinea capitis), the feet (tinea pedis, or 'athlete's foot'), or the groin (tinea cruris, or 'jock itch').

Brain Foods That Help You Concentrate

Brain Foods That Help You Concentrate



Listen to the buzz about foods and dietary supplements and you'll believe they can do everything from sharpen focus and concentration, to enhance memory, attention span, and brain function. But do they really work? There's no denying that as we age chronologically, our body ages right along with us. The good news? You can increase your chances of maintaining a healthy brain -- if you add "smart" foods and beverages to your diet.

Chronic Depression (Dysthymia)

Chronic Depression (Dysthymia)



ysthymia, sometimes referred to as chronic depression, is a less severe form of depression. With dysthymia, the depression symptoms can linger for a long period of time, perhaps two years or longer. Those who suffer from dysthymia are usually able to function adequately but might seem consistently unhappy.

What Causes Dysthymia?

Experts are not sure what causes dysthymia. This form of chronic depression is thought to be related to brain changes that involve serotonin, a chemical or neurotransmitter that aids your brain in coping with emotions. Major life stressors, chronic illness, medications, and relationship or work problems may also increase the chances of dysthymia.

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Dysthymia?

The symptoms of dysthymia are the same as those of major depression but not as intense and include the following:

* Persistent sad or empty feeling


* Difficulty sleeping (sleeping too much or too little)


* Insomnia (early morning awakening)


* Feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and worthlessness


* Feelings of guilt


* Loss of interest or the ability to enjoy oneself


* Loss of energy or fatigue


* Difficulty concentrating, thinking or making decisions


* Changes in appetite (overeating or loss of appetite)


* Observable mental and physical sluggishness


* Persistent aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems that do not ease even with treatment


* Thoughts of death or suicide

Is Dysthymia Common in the U.S.?

According to the National Institute of Mental Health, approximately 10.9 million Americans aged 18 and older are affected by dysthymia. While not disabling like major depression, dysthymia can keep you from feeling your best and functioning optimally. Dysthymia can begin in childhood or in adulthood and seems to be more common in women.

Bipolar Disorder (Mania)

Bipolar Disorder
(Mania)



Introduction to bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder, otherwise known as manic depression or bipolar depression, is a relatively common mood disorder that affects about 5.7 million Americans. Characterized by episodes of depression alternating with euphoric (manic) states, the symptoms of bipolar disorder are varied and often affect an individual's daily functioning and interpersonal relationships.

Bipolar disorder symptoms include depression and feelings of hopelessness during the depressive phase of the condition. Other depressive symptoms include thoughts of suicide, alterations in sleep patterns, and loss of interest in activities that once were a source of pleasure. What differentiates bipolar disorder from major depression is the occurrence of manic episodes, often described as emotional "highs," between the episodes of depression. Symptoms of manic states are varied and include restlessness, increased energy, euphoric mood, racing thoughts, poor judgment, intrusive or provocative behavior, difficulty concentrating, and a decreased need for sleep. People experiencing manic episodes often speak very rapidly, seem overly irritable, and may have unrealistic beliefs about their own power and capability.

Fortunately, bipolar disorder is a treatable condition. With appropriate treatment, most people suffering from bipolar disorder can achieve substantial stabilization of their mood swings and are able to lead a normal life. Treatment of bipolar disorder often involves medications known as "mood stabilizers." Lithium (Eskalith, Lithobid) is the most commonly prescribed mood stabilizer for people with bipolar disorder, but some anticonvulsant medications, including valproate (Depakote) or carbamazepine (Tegretol), also can have mood-stabilizing effects and may be used in the treatment of bipolar disorder.

MedicineNet Medical Author: Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
MedicineNet Medical Editor: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR

The following information is provided by the National Institutes of Health.

What is bipolar disorder?

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. Symptoms of bipolar disorder are severe. They are different from the normal ups and downs that everyone goes through from time to time. Bipolar disorder symptoms can result in damaged relationships, poor job or school performance, and even suicide. But bipolar disorder can be treated, and people with this illness can lead full and productive lives.

Bipolar disorder often develops in a person's late teens or early adult years. At least half of all cases start before age 25. Some people have their first symptoms during childhood, while others may develop symptoms late in life.

Bipolar disorder is not easy to spot when it starts. The symptoms may seem like separate problems, not recognized as parts of a larger problem. Some people suffer for years before they are properly diagnosed and treated. Like diabetes or heart disease, bipolar disorder is a long-term illness that must be carefully managed throughout a person's life.

Dads Get Postpartum Depression, Too

Dads Get Postpartum Depression, Too



By Denise Mann
WebMD Health News

Reviewed By Laura J. Martin, MD

May 18, 2010 -- Although postpartum depression in new moms is well known and well documented, slightly more than 10% of new dads also become depressed before or after their baby's birth.

The new findings were presented at a news conference sponsored by the American Medical Association and appear in the May 19 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association.

"This is a rate that is two times higher than what is generally seen in adult men," says researcher James F. Paulson, PhD, a pediatrician at Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk. "This is a public health concern and something we need to pay attention to."

Symptoms of paternal depression include sadness, loss of interest, sleep problems, and low energy. Other red flags may include irritability, withdrawal, and disengagement from the family, he tells WebMD.

The researchers analyzed 43 studies of 28,004 fathers that looked at paternal depression between the first trimester and the first year of the babies' life. Of these, 10.4% of dads were depressed. By contrast, 4.8% of men in general population are depressed.

The rate of depression among dads peaked three to six months after birth, the study showed.

Prenatal and postpartum depression tend to run in families. Dads were more likely to become depressed before or after baby's birth if the moms were also afflicted. There was also a correlation between the severity of depression among moms and dads in the study.

"It may be moms are leading the way or dad is leading the way, or this may be due to the child's temperament or health," Paulson says. Exactly why dads become depressed is not fully understood, but given the fact that postpartum depression tends to run in families, it may be related to the family dynamic.

There has been a focus on possible hormonal causes because postpartum depression has been primarily seen as a disorder of motherhood. The new findings suggest it is time to cast a wider net when looking for possible causes, Paulson says.

Like maternal depression, paternal depression can have negative effects on the children. Some research shows that children have emotional and behavioral issues when their dads are depressed during the prenatal and postpartum periods, he says. "When fathers are depressed during infancy, their children have somewhat reduced vocabulary by age 2," he says.
Men Get Baby Blues, Too

Some new mothers get "baby blues" in the first few weeks after they deliver. Baby blues are transient and not serious. They can make women feel weepy, emotional, and anxious and may be linked to hormonal changes after birth.

Dads may also get the baby blues, Paulson says. "I would suspect that there is something like [the baby blues in dads], but it has not been clearly documented," he says.

Richard M. Glass, MD, deputy editor for the Journal of the American Medical Association and a professor of psychiatry at the University of Chicago School of Medicine, tells WebMD that the message is to be alert and aware of the signs of depression in fathers.

"Recognize that there is such a thing as prenatal and postpartum depression in dads, and if you are concerned about what is going on with dad, seek an evaluation," he says.

Glass said that sleep loss could be a factor in postpartum depression in dads, given the fact that depression in dads tended to peak three to six months after birth.

"The first few months are filled with the joy of bringing the infant home, and after a few months things get kind of tough," he says. "But a lot of people get through without developing issues and others may be more vulnerable." Certain vulnerability factors within families may tip the scale toward depression among new parents, he says.

SOURCES: Paulson, J. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2010; vol 303: pp 1961-1969.

American Medical Association media briefing.

James F. Paulson, PhD, pediatrician, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk.

Richard M. Glass, MD, professor, psychiatry at the University of Chicago School of Medicine, Chicago.

©2010 WebMD, LLC. All Rights Reserved.

Symptoms, Types, Tests & Treatment

Symptoms, Types, Tests & Treatment



Depression: What Is It?

It's natural to feel down sometimes, but if that low mood lingers day after day, it could signal depression. Major depression is an episode of sadness or apathy that lasts at least two consecutive weeks and is severe enough to interrupt daily activities. Depression is not a sign of weakness or a negative personality. It is a major public health problem and a treatable medical condition.

Shown here is a PET scan revealing "hot spots" of increased activity in a non-depressed brain

Valve Disease Treatment (Heart Valve Surgery)

Valve Disease Treatment
(Heart Valve Surgery)



ntroduction to Heart Valve Surgery

Diseased heart valves can be treated both surgically (traditional heart valve surgery) and non-surgically (balloon valvuloplasty).

What Happens During Traditional Heart Valve Surgery?

During traditional heart valve surgery, a surgeon will make an incision down the center of your sternum (breastbone) to get direct access to your heart. The surgeon then repairs or replaces your abnormal heart valve or valves.

What Happens During Minimally Invasive Heart Valve Surgery?

Minimally invasive heart valve surgery is a type of surgery performed through smaller incisions. This type of surgery reduces blood loss, trauma, and length of hospital stay.

Your surgeon will review your diagnostic tests prior to your surgery to determine if you are a candidate for minimally invasive valve surgery.

Often, the surgeon and cardiologist (heart doctor) will use transesophogeal echo (an ultrasound transducer probe that is passed down the throat) to help determine the functioning of the valve before and after surgery.

What Is Heart Valve Repair Surgery?

The mitral valve is the most commonly repaired heart valve, but the aortic, pulmonic, and tricuspid valves may also undergo some of these repair techniques.

If your valve can be repaired, your surgeon will perform any of the following types of valve repair procedures.

* Commissurotomy. Fused valve leaflets, or flaps, are separated to widen the valve opening.
* Decalcification. Calcium deposits are removed to allow the leaflets to be more flexible and close properly.
* Reshape leaflets. If one of the leaflets is floppy, a segment may be cut out and the leaflet sewn back together, allowing the valve to close more tightly. This procedure is called quadrangular resection.
* Chordal transfer. If a leaflet of the mitral valve has prolapse (floppy; lacking support), the chordae are transferred from one leaflet to the other. Then, the leaflet where the chordae was removed is repaired by quandrangular resection (see above).
* Annulus support. If the valve annulus (the ring of tissue supporting the valve) is too wide, it may be reshaped or tightened by sewing a ring structure around the annulus. The ring may be made of tissue or synthetic material.
* Patched leaflets. The surgeon may use tissue patches to repair any leaflets with tears or holes.

The advantages of heart valve repair surgery include:

* decreased need for life-long blood thinner (anticoagulant) medication
* preserved heart muscle strength

Achalasia

Achalasia



What is achalasia?

Achalasia is a rare disease of the muscle of the esophagus (swallowing tube). The term achalasia means "failure to relax" and refers to the inability of the lower esophageal sphincter (a ring of muscle situated between the lower esophagus and the stomach) to open and let food pass into the stomach. As a result, patients with achalasia have difficulty in swallowing food.

How does the normal esophagus function?

The esophagus has three functional parts. The uppermost part is the upper esophageal sphincter, a specialized ring of muscle that forms the upper end of the tubular esophagus and separates the esophagus from the throat. The upper sphincter remains closed most of the time to prevent food in the main part of the esophagus from backing up into the throat. The main part of the esophagus is referred to as the body of the esophagus, a long, muscular tube approximately 20 cm (8 in) in length. The third functional part of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, a ring of specialized esophageal muscle at the junction of the esophagus with the stomach. Like the upper sphincter, the lower sphincter remains closed most of the time to prevent food and acid from backing up into the body of the esophagus from the stomach.

The upper sphincter relaxes with swallowing to allow food and saliva to pass from the throat into the esophageal body. The muscle in the upper esophagus just below the upper sphincter then contracts, squeezing food and saliva further down into the esophageal body. The ring-like contraction of the muscle progresses down the body of the esophagus, propelling the food and saliva towards the stomach. (The progression of the muscular contraction through the esophageal body is referred to as a peristaltic wave.). By the time the peristaltic wave reaches the lower sphincter, the sphincter has opened, and the food passes into the stomach.

Uterine Fibroids (Benign Tumors Of The Uterus)

Uterine Fibroids
(Benign Tumors Of The Uterus)




What are uterine fibroids?

Uterine fibroids are benign tumors that originate in the uterus (womb). Although they are composed of the same smooth muscle fibers as the uterine wall (myometrium), they are many times denser than normal myometrium. Uterine fibroids are usually round or semi-round in shape.

Uterine fibroids are often described based upon their location within the uterus. Subserosal fibroids are located beneath the serosa (the lining membrane on the outside of the organ). These often appear localized on the outside surface of the uterus or may be attached to the outside surface by a pedicle. Submucosal (submucous) fibroids are located inside the uterine cavity beneath the lining of the uterus. Intramural fibroids are located within the muscular wall of the uterus.

Why do women develop uterine fibroids and how common are they?

We do not know exactly why women develop these tumors. Genetic abnormalities, alterations in growth factor (proteins formed in the body that direct the rate and extent of cell proliferation) expression, abnormalities in the vascular (blood vessel) system, and tissue response to injury have all been suggested to play a role in the development of fibroids.

Family history is a key factor, since there is often a history of fibroids developing in women of the same family. Race also appears to play a role. Women of African descent are two to three times more likely to develop fibroids than women of other races. Women of African ancestry also develop fibroids at a younger age and may have symptoms from fibroids in their 20s, in contrast to Caucasian women with fibroids, in whom symptoms typically occur during the 30s and 40s. Pregnancy and taking oral contraceptives both decrease the likelihood that fibroids will develop. Fibroids have not been observed in girls who have not reached puberty, but adolescent girls may rarely develop fibroids. Other factors that researchers have associated with an increased risk of developing fibroids include having the first menstrual period (menarche) prior to age 10, consumption of alcohol (particularly beer), uterine infections, and elevated blood pressure (hypertension).

Estrogen tends to stimulate the growth of fibroids in many cases. During the first trimester of pregnancy, up to 30% of fibroids will enlarge and then shrink after the birth. In general, fibroids tend to shrink after menopause, but postmenopausal hormone therapy may cause symptoms to persist.

Overall, these tumors are fairly common and occur in up to 50% of all women. Most of the time, uterine fibroids do not cause symptoms or problems, and a woman with a fibroid is usually unaware of its presence.

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Breast Biopsy

Breast Biopsy



A breast biopsy is a procedure in which part or all of a suspicious breast growth is removed and examined, usually for the presence of cancer. The growth sample is suctioned out through a needle or cut out using a surgical procedure. The sample is then examined and evaluated under a microscope by a pathologist to identify non-cancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant) tissue.

Words used to refer to the abnormal area or growth before and after diagnosis may include lump, mass, lesion, and tumor.

What is the purpose of a breast biopsy?

The basic aim of a breast biopsy is to determine whether or not a worrisome lump is cancer and, if it is cancer, what type it is. When no cancer is detected, the diagnosis of a benign or harmless lump is reassuring.

Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer



Your mammogram is suspicious for breast cancer." "Your biopsy was positive for breast cancer." These are among the most terrifying words a woman can hear from her doctor. Breast cancer elicits so many fears, including those relating to surgery, death, loss of body image, and loss of sexuality. Managing these fears can be facilitated by information and knowledge so that each woman can make the best decisions concerning her care. Optimally, these issues are best discussed with the patient's doctor on an individual basis. What follows is a review of information on breast cancer intended to aid patients and their families in their navigation through the vast ocean of breast cancer issues.
Types of Breast Cancer
What kind of breast cancer do I have?

Learn about the types of breast cancer.Breast cancer is not a single disease. There are many types of breast cancer, and they may have vastly different implications. Breast cancers range from localized cancers such as ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) to invasive cancers that can rapidly spread (metastasize). In the middle of the spectrum are breast cancers, such as colloid carcinomas and papillary carcinomas, which have a much more favorable outlook (prognosis) than the other more typically invasive breast cancers. Sometimes, noninvasive DCIS is found around invasive breast cancers.

Get the facts on breast cancer »

Introduction to breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer in women and the second most common cause of cancer death in women in the U.S. While the majority of new breast cancers are diagnosed as a result of an abnormality seen on a mammogram, a lump, or change in consistency of the breast tissue can also be a warning sign of the disease. Heightened awareness of breast cancer risk in the past decades has led to an increase in the number of women undergoing mammography for screening, leading to detection of cancers in earlier stages and a resultant improvement in survival rates. Still, breast cancer is the most common cause of death in women between 45-55 years of age. Although breast cancer in women is a common form of cancer, male breast cancer does occur and accounts for about 1% of all cancer deaths in men.

Research has yielded much information about the causes of breast cancers, and it is now believed that genetic and/or hormonal factors are the primary risk factors for breast cancer. Staging systems have been developed to allow doctors to characterize the extent to which a particular cancer has spread and to make decisions concerning treatment options. Breast cancer treatment depends upon many factors, including the type of cancer and the extent to which it has spread. Treatment options for breast cancer may involve surgery (removal of the cancer alone or, in some cases, mastectomy), radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, and/or chemotherapy.

With advances in screening, diagnosis, and treatment, the death rate for breast cancer has declined. In fact, about 90% of women newly diagnosed with breast cancer will survive for at least five years. Research is ongoing to develop even more effective screening and treatment programs.

MedicineNet Medical Author: Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
MedicineNet Medical Editor: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR

The following information is provided by the National Cancer Institute.

The breasts

Inside a woman's breast are 15 to 20 sections called lobes. Each lobe is made of many smaller sections called lobules. Lobules have groups of tiny glands that can make milk. After a baby is born, a woman's breast milk flows from the lobules through thin tubes called ducts to the nipple. Fat and fibrous tissue fill the spaces between the lobules and ducts.

The breasts also contain lymph vessels. These vessels are connected to small, round masses of tissue called lymph nodes. Groups of lymph nodes are near the breast in the underarm (axilla), above the collarbone, and in the chest behind the breastbone.

Picture of the anatomy of the breast
Picture of the anatomy of the breast

Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Men (STDs)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Men
(STDs)



Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections that are transmitted during any type of sexual exposure, including intercourse (vaginal or anal), oral sex, and the sharing of sexual devices, such as vibrators. In the professional medical arena, STDs are referred to as STIs (sexually transmitted infections). This terminology is used because many infections are frequently temporary. Some STDs are infections that are transmitted by persistent and close skin-to-skin contact, including during sexual intimacy. Although treatment exists for many STDs, others currently are usually incurable, such as HIV, HPV, hepatitis B and C, and HHV-8. Furthermore, many infections can be present in, and be spread by, patients who do not have symptoms.

The most effective way to prevent the spread of STDs is abstinence. Alternatively, the diligent use of latex barriers, such as condoms, during vaginal or anal intercourse and oral-genital contact helps decrease the spread of many of these infections. Still, there is no guarantee that transmission will not occur. In fact, preventing the spread of STDs also depends upon appropriate counseling of at-risk individuals and the early diagnosis and treatment of those infected.

In this article, the STDs in men have been organized into three major categories: (1) STDs that are associated with genital lesions; (2) STDs that are associated with urethritis (inflammation of the urethra, the canal through which urine flows out); and (3) systemic STDs (involving various organ systems of the body). Note, however, that some of the diseases that are listed as being associated with genital lesions (for example, syphilis) or with urethritis (for example, gonorrhea) can also have systemic involvement.

Diseases Associated With Genital Lesions

Chancroid

What is chancroid?

Chancroid is a bacterial infection with the bacteria Hemophilus ducreyi. The infection initialy manifests in a sexually exposed area of the skin. The infection typically appears on the penis but also occasionally occurs in the anal or mouth area. Chancroid starts out as a tender bump that emerges 3 to 10 days (the incubation period) after the sexual exposure. The bump then erupts into an ulcer (an open sore), which is usually painful. Often, there is an associated tenderness of the glands (lymph nodes), for example, in the groin of patients with penile bumps or ulcers. Chancroid is a relatively rare cause of genital lesions in the U.S., but is much more common in many developing countries.

How is chancroid diagnosed?

The diagnosis of chancroid is usually made by a culture of the ulcer to identify the causative bacteria. A clinical diagnosis (which is made from the medical history and physical examination) can be made if the patient has one or more painful ulcers and there is no evidence for an alternative diagnosis such as syphilis or herpes. The clinical diagnosis justifies the treatment of chancroid even if cultures are not available. Incidentally, the word chancroid means resembling a "chancre," which is the medical term for the painless genital ulcer that is seen in syphilis. Chancroid is also sometimes called "soft chancre" to distinguish it from the chancre of syphilis, which feels hard to the touch.

How is chancroid treated?

Chancroid is almost always cured with a single oral dose of 1 gram of azithromycin (Zithromax) or a single injection of ceftriaxone (Rocephin). Alternative medications are ciprofloxacin (Cipro), 500 mg taken twice per day by mouth for three days, or erythromycin, 500 mg taken four times per day by mouth for 7 days. Whichever treatment is used, the ulcers should improve within 7 days. If no improvement is seen after treatment, the patient should be reevaluated for other causes of the ulcers. HIV-infected individuals are at an increased risk of failing treatment for chancroid. They should therefore be followed especially closely to assure that the treatment has worked. In addition, someone diagnosed with chancroid should be tested for other sexually transmitted diseases (such as chlamydia and gonorrhea), because more than one infection can be present at the same time.

What should a person do if exposed to someone with chancroid?

A health care practitioner should evaluate anyone who has had sexual contact with a person with chancroid. Whether or not the exposed individual has an ulcer, they should be treated if they were exposed to their partner's ulcer. Likewise, if they had contact within 10 days of the onset of their partner's ulcer, they should be treated even if their partner's ulcer was not present at the time of the exposure.

Skin Problems

Skin Problems



Shingles: An acute infection caused by the herpes zoster virus, the same virus as causes chickenpox. Shingles is most common after the age of 50 and the risk rises with advancing age. Shingles occurs because of exposure to chickenpox or reactivation of the herpes zoster virus. The virus remains latent (dormant) in nerve roots for many years following chickenpox.

Shingles is an extraordinarily painful condition that involves inflammation of sensory nerves. It causes numbness, itching or pain followed by the appearance of clusters of littles blisters in a strip pattern on one side of the body. The pain can persist for weeks, months or years after the rash heals and is then known as post-herpetic neuralgia.

People with shingles are contagious to persons who have not had chickenpox and can catch chickenpox from close contact with a person who has shingles. Treatment includes antiviral medication and pain medication.

The term shingles has nothing to do with a shingle on a roof or the small signboard outside the office of a doctor but is derived from the Latin cingulum meaning girdle, the idea being that shingles often girdles part of the body.

Depression

Depression




Depression Tips Slideshow Pictures of Depression Tips for Exercise, Diet and Stress Reduction
Myths About Depression Quiz
Depressed? Feel Better: 8 Important Steps

Medical Authors: Roxanne Dryden-Edwards, MD, and Dennis Lee, MD
Medical Editor: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR

* What is a depressive disorder?
* What are myths about depression?
* What are the types of depression and their symptoms?
* Major depression
* Dysthymia
* Bipolar disorder (manic depression)
* Symptoms of bipolar disorder and mania
* Depression symptoms of manic depression
* Mania symptoms of manic depression
* What are the causes of depression?
* Postpartum depression
* How is depression diagnosed?
* What treatments are available for depression?
* Antidepressant medications
* Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
* Psychotherapies
* What is the general approach to treating depression?
* What about sexual dysfunction related to antidepressants?
* What about discontinuing antidepressants?
* What about self-help?
* How can someone help a person who is depressed?
* Where can one seek help for depression?
* What is in the future for depression?
* Where can people find more information about depression?
* Depression At A Glance
* Depression Tips - Slideshow View Depression Tips for Recovering Slideshow
* Myths About Depression Quiz
* Depressed? Feel Better: 8 Important Steps
* Patient Discussions: Depression - Effective Treatments
* Find a local Psychiatrist in your town

Depression
What are the causes of depression?

Read about causes of depression.Some types of depression run in families, indicating that a biological vulnerability to depression can be inherited. This seems to be the case, especially with bipolar disorder. Families in which members of each generation develop bipolar disorder have been studied. The investigators found that those with the illness have a somewhat different genetic makeup than those who do not become ill. However, the reverse is not true. That is, not everybody with the genetic makeup that causes vulnerability to bipolar disorder will develop the illness. Apparently, additional factors, possibly a stressful environment, are involved in its onset and protective factors are involved in its prevention.

Major depression also seems to occur in generation after generation in some families, although not as strongly as in bipolar I or II. Indeed, major depression can also occur in people who have no family history of depression.

An external event often seems to initiate an episode of depression. Thus, a serious loss, chronic illness, difficult relationship, financial problem, or any unwelcome change in life patterns can trigger a depressive episode. Very often, a combination of genetic, psychological, and environmental factors is involved in the onset of a depressive disorder. Stressors that contribute to the development of depression sometimes affect some groups more than others. For example, minority groups who more often feel impacted by discrimination and are disproportionately represented. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups have higher rates of depression compared to their advantaged counterparts. Immigrants to the United States may be more vulnerable to developing depression, particularly when isolated by language.

Learn more about depression causes »

What is a depressive disorder?

Depressive disorders have been with mankind since the beginning of recorded history. In the Bible, King David, as well as Job, suffered from this affliction. Hippocrates referred to depression as melancholia, which literally means black bile. Black bile, along with blood, phlegm, and yellow bile were the four humors (fluids) that described the basic medical physiology theory of that time. Depression, also referred to as clinical depression, has been portrayed in literature and the arts for hundreds of years, but what do we mean today when we refer to a depressive disorder? In the 19th century, depression was seen as an inherited weakness of temperament. In the first half of the 20th century, Freud linked the development of depression to guilt and conflict. John Cheever, the author and a modern sufferer of depressive disorder, wrote of conflict and experiences with his parents as influencing his development of depression.

In the 1950s and '60s, depression was divided into two types, endogenous and neurotic. Endogenous means that the depression comes from within the body, perhaps of genetic origin, or comes out of nowhere. Neurotic or reactive depression has a clear environmental precipitating factor, such as the death of a spouse, or other significant loss, such as the loss of a job. In the 1970s and '80s, the focus of attention shifted from the cause of depression to its effects on the afflicted people. That is to say, whatever the cause in a particular case, what are the symptoms and impaired functions that experts can agree make up a depressive disorder? Although there is some argument even today (as in all branches of medicines), most experts agree on the following:

1. A depressive disorder is a syndrome (group of symptoms) that reflects a sad and/or irritable mood exceeding normal sadness or grief. More specifically, the sadness of depression is characterized by a greater intensity and duration and by more severe symptoms and functional disabilities than is normal.


2. Depressive signs and symptoms are characterized not only by negative thoughts, moods, and behaviors but also by specific changes in bodily functions (for example, crying spells, body aches, low energy or libido, as well as problems with eating, weight, or sleeping). The functional changes of clinical depression are often called neurovegetative signs. This means that the nervous system changes in the brain cause many physical symptoms that result in diminished participation and a decreased or increased activity level.


3. Certain people with depressive disorder, especially bipolar depression (manic depression), seem to have an inherited vulnerability to this condition.


4. Depressive disorders are a huge public-health problem, due to its affecting millions of people. About 10% of adults, up to 8% of teens and 2% of preteen children experience some kind of depressive disorder.

o The statistics on the costs due to depression in the United States include huge amounts of direct costs, which are for treatment, and indirect costs, such as lost productivity and absenteeism from work or school.


o Adolescents who suffer from depression are at risk for developing and maintaining obesity.


o In a major medical study, depression caused significant problems in the functioning of those affected more often than did arthritis, hypertension, chronic lung disease, and diabetes, and in some ways as often as coronary artery disease.


o Depression can increase the risks for developing coronary artery disease, HIV, asthma, and many other medical illnesses. Furthermore, it can increase the morbidity (illness/negative health effects) and mortality (death) from these and many other medical conditions.


o Depression can coexist with virtually every other mental health illness, aggravating the status of those who suffer the combination of both depression and the other mental illness.


o Depression in the elderly tends to be chronic, has a low rate of recovery, and is often undertreated. This is of particular concern given that elderly men, particularly elderly white men have the highest suicide rate.

5. Depression is usually first identified in a primary-care setting, not in a mental health practitioner's office. Moreover, it often assumes various disguises, which causes depression to be frequently underdiagnosed.


6. In spite of clear research evidence and clinical guidelines regarding therapy, depression is often undertreated. Hopefully, this situation can change for the better.


7. For full recovery from a mood disorder, regardless of whether there is a precipitating factor or it seems to come out of the blue, treatment with medication and/or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (see discussion below) and psychotherapy are necessary.

What to Do in a Drug Recall

What to Do in a Drug Recall




On Apr. 30, 2010, Johnson & Johnson's McNeil Consumer Healthcare division issued a recall of certain liquid medications for children and infants, including popular over-the-counter drugs like Children's Tylenol (acetaminophen) and Children's Motrin (ibuprofen). This recall by McNeil is in cooperation with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

In this case, the recall was due to findings of thick dust and grime on certain equipment, a hole in the ceiling, duct-tape-covered pipes, raw ingredients contaminated with bacteria, and a lack of quality-control procedures at a Johnson & Johnson manufacturing facility in Fort Washington, Pa. Forty products were affected by the recall.

Although the FDA admitted that the chances of becoming sick from these products were "remote," they still encouraged caution and advised consumers to use generic or alternative versions of these medications.

When a product recall is issued, stores pull the products from shelves to ensure that no further sales of the recalled product can occur. Whenever there is a drug recall, you can also determine whether you have purchased affected medications by checking the product's NDC number on the package (National Drug Code number, a unique identifying number for medications intended for human use). The NDC number is a 10-digit number containing three segments that denote the drug's vendor, the specific product, and the type of packaging.

For the 2010 J&J recall, affected NDC numbers can be found on the FDA web site (http://www.fda.gov/) as well as on the web site for McNeil Consumer Healthcare (http://www.mcneilproductrecall.com/). Refunds for purchased product and/or coupons for replacement of recalled drugs are also available from the manufacturer's web site.

If you have purchased medication affected by a recall, dispose of it properly and do not use the medication. Confirm that your product carries an NDC number affected by the recall by checking on the web site for the company or the FDA web site. Your pharmacist can help you choose generic or alternative versions of the recalled medications. If you would like to purchase new versions of the affected products, you can ask your pharmacist to verify that the product contains an approved NDC code.

REFERENCE:

United States. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. "McNeil Consumer Healthcare Announces Voluntary Recall of Certain OTC Infants' and Children's Products." May 3, 2010. .

Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Eosinophilic Esophagitis




Eosinophilic esophagitis is an inflammatory condition in which the wall of the esophagus becomes filled with large numbers of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell.

The esophagus is a muscular tube that propels swallowed food from the mouth into the stomach. Esophagitis refers to inflammation of the esophagus that have several causes. The most common cause of esophagitis is acid reflux which most frequently results in heartburn, although acid reflux also can cause ulcers in the inner lining of the esophagus. Other less common causes of esophagitis include viruses (such as herpes simplex), fungi (such as Candida), medications that get stuck in the esophagus (such as the antibiotic, tetracycline), and radiation therapy (such as during treatment of lung cancer). Doctors believe that eosinophilic esophagitis is a type of esophagitis that is caused by allergy for two reasons. First eosinophils are prominent in other diseases associated with allergy such as asthma, hay fever, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. Second, patients with eosinophilic esophagitis are more likely to suffer from these other allergic diseases. Nevertheless, the exact substance that is causing the allergic reaction in eosinophilic esophagitis is not known. The hallmark of eosinophilic esophagitis is the presence of large numbers of eosinophils in the tissue just beneath the inner lining of the esophagus.

Eosinophils are white blood cells (leukocytes) manufactured in the bone marrow and are one of the many types of cells that actively promote inflammation. They are particularly active in the type of inflammation caused by allergic reactions. Thus, large number of eosinophils can accumulate in tissues such as the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, and sometimes in the blood when individuals are exposed to an allergen. The allergen(s) that causes eosinophilic esophagitis is not known. It is not even known whether the allergen is inhaled or ingested.

Eosinophilic esophagitis affects both children and adults. For unknown reasons, men are more commonly affected than women, and it is most commonly found among young boys and men.

This article primarily deals with the diagnosis and management of swallowing problems (dysphagia), the most common complication in adults with eosinophilic esophagitis.

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Watch & Learn About Gout

Watch & Learn About Gout




Gout is condition that results from crystals of uric acid depositing in tissues of the body. Gout is characterized by an overload of uric acid in the body and recurring attacks of joint inflammation (arthritis). Uric acid is a breakdown product of purines that are part of many foods we eat. An abnormality in handling uric acid can cause attacks of painful arthritis (gout attack), kidney stones, and blockage of the kidney filtering tubules with uric acid crystals, leading to kidney failure. Gout has the unique distinction of being one of the most frequently recorded medical illnesses throughout history.

Urinary Incontinence in Women

Urinary Incontinence in Women



Urinary incontinence, or loss of bladder control, is a frustrating problem for more than 13 million Americans. Never knowing when and where you might have an accident can impact everything from work to exercise to your social calendar. Urinary incontinence affects people of either gender but is twice as common in women. Research suggests that half of older women may have some form of incontinence.

Black Widow Spider vs. Brown Recluse Spider

Black Widow Spider vs. Brown Recluse Spider




The majority of spiders found in the US are harmless. The two most common exceptions are the black widow spider and the brown recluse spider, which are both dangerous to humans. The black widow and brown recluse spiders are more common in the southern states of the US and prefer warm, dry climates as well as undisturbed areas such as basements, closets, woodpiles, attics, or under sinks.

Stages of Pregnancy

Stages of Pregnancy



Pregnancy is measured in trimesters from the first day of your last menstrual period (LMP) and normally lasts about 40 weeks from conception to the birth of a baby. This time is roughly divided into 3 periods: the first trimester, second trimester and third trimeste

Adult Skin Problems

Adult Skin Problems




Is your skin itching, breaking out, covered in a rash, or playing host to strange spots? Skin inflammation, changes in texture or color, and spots may be the result of infection, a chronic skin condition, or contact with an allergen or irritant. You can learn to recognize common adult skin problems. Yet, while many are minor, they may signal something more serious, so always consult a doctor for proper diagnosis.

Spider and Varicose Veins

Spider and Varicose Veins


Spider veins and varicose veins are practically a rite of passage. As we age, many of us find the jagged purple lines or swollen bluish cords spreading across our thighs and calves. These warped blood vessels occur in up to 60% of adults. Find out exactly what they are, where they come from, and how to make them disappear — including some before-and-after treatment images.

Lung Cancer

Lung Cancer



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Lung Cancer

Medical Author: Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
Medical Editor: Jay W. Marks, MD

* What is lung cancer?
* How common is lung cancer?
* What causes lung cancer?
* What are the types of lung cancer?
* What are the signs and symptoms of lung cancer?
* How is lung cancer diagnosed?
* What is staging of lung cancer?
* How is lung cancer treated?
* What is the prognosis (outcome) of lung cancer?
* How can lung cancer be prevented?
* Lung Cancer At A Glance
* Patient Discussions: Lung Cancer - Describe Your Experience
* Find a local Oncologist in your town

Doctor to Patient
Why Does Lung Cancer Occur in Non-Smokers?

Medical Author: Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
Medical Editor: Jay W. Marks, MD

The dangers of secondhand smoke While cigarette smoking is an undisputed cause of lung cancer, not all cases of lung cancer occur in smokers or former smokers. Each year, over 170,000 Americans develop lung cancer, and approximately 10% of lung cancers, or 17,000 cases, occur in non-smokers. Although not every non-smoker suffering from lung cancer will have an identifiable risk factor for development of the disease, a number of conditions and circumstances have been identified that will increase a non-smoker’s chance of developing lung cancer.

Passive smoking, or the inhalation of tobacco smoke from other smokers sharing living or working quarters, is an established risk factor for the development of lung cancer. Non-smokers who reside with a smoker have a 24% increase in risk for developing lung cancer when compared with other non-smokers. Each year, up to 3,000 lung cancer deaths are estimated to occur in the U.S. that are attributable to passive smoking. For more, please read the Dangers Secondhand Smoke article.
Learn about other causes of lung cancer »

Top Searched Lung Cancer Terms:
non small cell lung cancer, survival rates, smoking, adenocarcinoma, facts, small cell lung cancer
Doctor to Patient

What is lung cancer?

Cancer of the lung, like all cancers, results from an abnormality in the body's basic unit of life, the cell. Normally, the body maintains a system of checks and balances on cell growth so that cells divide to produce new cells only when new cells are needed. Disruption of this system of checks and balances on cell growth results in an uncontrolled division and proliferation of cells that eventually forms a mass known as a tumor.

Tumors can be benign or malignant; when we speak of "cancer," we are referring to those tumors that are malignant. Benign tumors usually can be removed and do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, grow aggressively and invade other tissues of the body, allowing entry of tumor cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system and then to other sites in the body. This process of spread is termed metastasis; the areas of tumor growth at these distant sites are called metastases. Since lung cancer tends to spread or metastasize very early after it forms, it is a very life-threatening cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. While lung cancer can spread to any organ in the body, certain organs -- particularly the adrenal glands, liver, brain, and bone -- are the most common sites for lung cancer metastasis.

The lung also is a very common site for metastasis from tumors in other parts of the body. Tumor metastases are made up of the same type of cells as the original (primary) tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads via the bloodstream to the lungs, it is metastatic prostate cancer in the lung and is not lung cancer.

Lung Cancer Picture
Picture of lung cancer

The principal function of the lungs is to exchange gases between the air we breathe and the blood. Through the lung, carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream and oxygen from inspired air enters the bloodstream. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung is divided into two lobes and a small structure called the lingula that is the equivalent of the middle lobe on the right. The major airways entering the lungs are the bronchi, which arise from the trachea. The bronchi branch into progressively smaller airways called bronchioles that end in tiny sacs known as alveoli where gas exchange occurs. The lungs and chest wall are covered with a thin layer of tissue called the pleura.

Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung, but 90%-95% of cancers of the lung are thought to arise from the epithelial cells, the cells lining the larger and smaller airways (bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason, lung cancers are sometimes called bronchogenic cancers or bronchogenic carcinomas. (Carcinoma is another term for cancer.) Cancers also can arise from the pleura (called mesotheliomas) or rarely from supporting tissues within the lungs, for example, the blood vessels.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)



Generalized anxiety disorder (or GAD) is characterized by excessive, exaggerated anxiety and worry about everyday life events with no obvious reasons for worry. People with symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder tend to always expect disaster and can't stop worrying about health, money, family, work, or school. In people with GAD, the worry often is unrealistic or out of proportion for the situation. Daily life becomes a constant state of worry, fear, and dread. Eventually, the anxiety so dominates the person's thinking that it interferes with daily functioning, including work, school, social activities, and relationships.

What Are the Symptoms of GAD?

GAD affects the way a person thinks, but the anxiety can lead to physical symptoms, as well. Symptoms of GAD can include:

* Excessive, ongoing worry and tension
* An unrealistic view of problems
* Restlessness or a feeling of being "edgy"
* Irritability
* Muscle tension
* Headaches
* Sweating
* Difficulty concentrating
* Nausea
* The need to go to the bathroom frequently
* Tiredness
* Trouble falling or staying asleep
* Trembling
* Being easily startled

In addition, people with GAD often have other anxiety disorders (such as panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and phobias), suffer from depression, and/or abuse drugs or alcohol.

What Causes GAD?

The exact cause of GAD is not fully known, but a number of factors -- including genetics, brain chemistry and environmental stresses -- appear to contribute to its development.

* Genetics: Some research suggests that family history plays a part in increasing the likelihood that a person will develop GAD. This means that the tendency to develop GAD may be passed on in families.
* Brain chemistry: GAD has been associated with abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. Neurotransmitters are special chemical messengers that help move information from nerve cell to nerve cell. If the neurotransmitters are out of balance, messages cannot get through the brain properly. This can alter the way the brain reacts in certain situations, leading to anxiety.
* Environmental factors: Trauma and stressful events, such as abuse, the death of a loved one, divorce, changing jobs or schools, may lead to GAD. GAD also may become worse during periods of stress. The use of and withdrawal from addictive substances, including alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine, can also worsen anxiety.

How Common Is GAD?

About 4 million adult Americans suffer from GAD during the course of a year. It most often begins in childhood or adolescence, but can begin in adulthood. It is more common in women than in men.

Anemia

Anemia



Anemia is a medical condition in which the red blood cell count or hemoglobin is less than normal. The normal level of hemoglobin is generally different in males and females. For men, anemia is typically defined as hemoglobin level of less than 13.5 gram/100ml and in women as hemoglobin of less than 12.0 gram/100ml. These definitions may vary slightly depending on the source and the laboratory reference used.

What causes anemia?

Any process that can disrupt the normal life span of a red blood cell may cause anemia. Normal life span of a red blood cell is typically around 120 days. Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow.

Anemia is caused essentially through two basic pathways. Anemia is either caused:

1. by a decrease in production of red blood cell or hemoglobin, or

2. by a loss or destruction of blood.

As more common classifications of anemia (low hemoglobin) is based on the MCV, or the volume of individual red blood cells.

1. If the MCV is low (less than 80), the anemia is categorized as microcytic anemia (low cell volume).

2. If the MCV is in the normal range (80-100), it is called a normocytic anemia (normal cell volume).

3. If the MCV is high, then it is called a macrocytic anemia (large cell volume).

Looking at each of the components of a complete blood count (CBC), especially the MCV, a physician can gather clues as what may be the most common reason for anemia.

Picture of Red Blood Cells

Leukemia

Leukemia



Leukemia is cancer that starts in the tissue that forms blood. To understand cancer, it helps to know how normal blood cells form.

Normal Blood Cells

Most blood cells develop from cells in the bone marrow called stem cells. Bone marrow is the soft material in the center of most bones.

Stem cells mature into different kinds of blood cells. Each kind has a special job:

White Blood Cells
White blood cells help fight infection. There are several types of white blood cells.

Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body.

Platelets
Platelets help form blood clots that control bleeding.

White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made from stem cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or get damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

The picture below shows how stem cells can mature into different types of white blood cells. First, a stem cell matures into either a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell:

* A myeloid stem cell matures into a myeloid blast. The blast can form a red blood cell, platelets, or one of several types of white blood cells.


* A lymphoid stem cell matures into a lymphoid blast. The blast can form one of several types of white blood cells, such as B cells or T cells.

The white blood cells that form from myeloid blasts are different from the white blood cells that form from lymphoid blasts.

Picture of Leukemia

Leukemia Cells

In a person with leukemia, the bone marrow makes abnormal white blood cells. The abnormal cells are leukemia cells.

Unlike normal blood cells, leukemia cells don't die when they should. They may crowd out normal white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This makes it hard for normal blood cells to do their work.

Kidney Stones (Renal Stones, Nephrolithiasis)

Kidney Stones
(Renal Stones, Nephrolithiasis)



A kidney stone is a hard, crystalline mineral material formed within the kidney or urinary tract. Kidney stones are a common cause of blood in the urine and often severe pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. Kidney stones are sometimes called renal calculi. One in every 20 people develops a kidney stone at some point in their life.

The condition of having kidney stones is termed nephrolithiasis. Having stones at any location in the urinary tract is referred to as urolithiasis.

What causes kidney stones?

Kidney stones form when there is a decrease in urine volume and/or an excess of stone-forming substances in the urine. The most common type of kidney stone contains calcium in combination with either oxalate or phosphate. Other chemical compounds that can form stones in the urinary tract include uric acid and the amino acid cystine.

Dehydration from reduced fluid intake or strenuous exercise without adequate fluid replacement increases the risk of kidney stones. Obstruction to the flow of urine can also lead to stone formation. Kidney stones can also result from infection in the urinary tract; these are known as struvite or infection stones.

Men are especially likely to develop kidney stones, and Caucasians are more often affected than blacks. The prevalence of kidney stones begins to rise when men reach their 40s, and it continues to climb into their 70s. People who have already had more than one kidney stone are prone to develop more stones. A family history of kidney stones is also a risk factor for developing kidney stones.

A number of different medical conditions can lead to an increased risk for developing kidney stones:

* Gout results in an increased amount of uric acid in the urine and can lead to the formation of uric acid stones.


* Hypercalciuria (high calcium in the urine), another inherited condition, causes stones in more than half of cases. In this condition, too much calcium is absorbed from food and excreted into the urine, where it may form calcium phosphate or calcium oxalate stones.


* Other conditions associated with an increased risk of kidney stones include hyperparathyroidism, kidney diseases such as renal tubular acidosis, and some inherited metabolic conditions including cystinuria and hyperoxaluria. Chronic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure (hypertension) are also associated with an increased risk of developing kidney stones.


* People with inflammatory bowel disease or who have had an intestinal bypass or ostomy surgery are also more likely to develop kidney stones.


* Some medications also raise the risk of kidney stones. These medications include some diuretics, calcium-containing antacids, and the protease inhibitor indinavir (Crixivan), a drug used to treat HIV infection.